Diego Armando Maradona was born on 30 October 1960, at the Policlínico (Polyclinic) Evita Hospital in Lanús, Buenos Aires Province, but raised in Villa Fiorito, a.
Exercise as a Potential Treatment for Drug Abuse: Evidence from Preclinical Studies. Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Davidson College, Davidson, NC, USA2. Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USAEdited by: Lorenzo Leggio, Brown University, Italy. Reviewed by: Andrea Cippitelli, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, USA; Joseph Ciccolo, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, USA*Correspondence: Wendy J. Lynch, Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia Health System, 1.
Discovery Drive, Charlottesville, VA 2. USA. e- mail: ude. This article was submitted to Frontiers in Addictive Disorders, a specialty of Frontiers in Psychiatry. Received 2. 01. 1 Nov 1. Accepted 2. 01. 1 Dec 2.
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This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract. Epidemiological studies reveal that individuals who engage in regular aerobic exercise are less likely to use and abuse illicit drugs. Until recently, very few studies had examined the causal influences that mediate this relationship, and it was not clear whether exercise was effective at reducing substance use and abuse. In the past few years, several preclinical studies have revealed that exercise reduces drug self- administration in laboratory animals. These studies have revealed that exercise produces protective effects in procedures designed to model different transitional phases that occur during the development of, and recover from, a substance use disorder (e.
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Moreover, recent studies have revealed several behavioral and neurobiological consequences of exercise that may be responsible for its protective effects in these assays. Collectively, these studies have provided convincing evidence to support the development of exercise- based interventions to reduce compulsive patterns of drug intake in clinical and at- risk populations.
Keywords: aerobic exercise, drug- seeking behavior, drug self- administration, physical activity. Epidemiological studies consistently report that aerobic exercise is inversely related to substance use and abuse.
The inverse relationship between aerobic exercise and substance use may be attributed to three possible factors. First, exercise could lead to a causal decrease in substance use, either by serving as an alternative, non- drug reinforcer, or by producing functional neuroadaptations that influence an individual’s susceptibility to developing a substance use disorder. Second, substance use could lead to a causal decrease in exercise, either by reducing discretionary time/income that would otherwise be spent on recreational activities or by decreasing aerobic capacity to limit an individual’s ability to engage in exercise. Third, an external factor could have a causal impact on both activities, such as an underlying personality trait or an influence from the individual’s home environment. These three possibilities are not mutually exclusive of one another, but only the first possibility provides a theoretical framework from which to design exercise- based interventions to decrease substance use and abuse.
Clinical studies, with proper control groups, will ultimately be needed to determine whether an exercise- based intervention decreases the likelihood of developing a substance use disorder or reduces relapse in treatment- seeking individuals. To date, few clinical studies have been published in which aerobic exercise was employed as an experimental manipulation and measures of substance use, particularly illicit substance use, was used as a dependent measure. The reasons for the lack of studies are undoubtedly due to the time and monetary expense involved in clinical research, but studies in this area are underway and more are expected. In the meantime, preclinical research will be necessary to determine the causal effects of aerobic exercise on drug self- administration, and to identify the important parameters that influence this relationship. Similarities between Drugs and Exercise in Preclinical Models of Reward and Reinforcement. Although most individuals experiment with drugs at some point in their lives, only a minority of individuals use drugs in a manner that meets the clinical definition of abuse. Individuals differ markedly in self- reported drug effects, and a drug may produce positive affective states in some individuals but negative affective states in other individuals (Volkow et al., 1.
These affective states depend on the dose of the drug and the context in which it is administered, which in turn determines the likelihood of whether it will be self- administered (Volkow and Swanson, 2. Similar to individual patterns of drug self- administration, all individuals engage in some level of physical activity, but only a minority of individuals engages in an amount that meets the level recommended by public health organizations (Pleis et al., 2. Similar to drugs of abuse, exercise produces positive affective states in some individuals but negative affective states in others (Ekkekakis et al., 2. Ekkekakis and Lind, 2. Ekkekakis et al., 2. Lind et al., 2. 00.
The one critical difference between the two behaviors is that regular engagement in one is detrimental to health, whereas regular engagement in the other is clearly beneficial. Under some conditions, exercise increases measures of euphoria and well- being in human populations in a manner similar to that of abused drugs (e. Janal et al., 1. 98. Nabetani and Tokunaga, 2. In laboratory animals, the positive affective states of exercise are typically examined in the conditioned place preference procedure, an assay in which a stimulus (e. If the animal later expresses a preference for the paired environment over a control environment, then one may assume that the experimental manipulation produced a positive affective state in that animal.
This procedure has long been used in substance abuse research, and drugs with high abuse liability reliably produce a conditioned place preference under a wide range of conditions (see reviews by Bardo and Bevins, 2. Tzschentke, 2. 00. Similarly, pairing a distinctive environment with the aftereffects of running produces a conditioned place preference (Lett et al., 2. Belke and Wagner, 2.
Greenwood et al., 2. Exercise also functions as a positive reinforcer in laboratory animals, in that animals will perform an operant response (e. This effect has been demonstrated in multiple studies employing a variety of experimental parameters (Iversen, 1. Belke, 1. 99. 7, 2. Belke and Dunbar, 2. Smith et al., 2. 01. Exercise also serves as positive reinforcer in humans under some conditions, and like laboratory animals, clinical populations will perform an operant response to engage in aerobic activity (Schebendach et al., 2.
Many abused substances serve as positive reinforcers in both humans and animals. The drug self- administration procedure is the primary means by which the reinforcing effects of drugs are examined in the laboratory. As a preclinical model, it is often considered the gold- standard by which the motivation to obtain a drug is compared across subject populations and experimental conditions. In the drug self- administration procedure, drug administration is contingent on an operant response (e. A drug is said to serve as a positive reinforcer if the drug maintains responding to a greater degree than that maintained by the drug’s vehicle (e. The drug self- administration procedure has good face and predictive validity, and drugs that are self- administered by animals tend to be abused by human populations (see reviews by O’Brien and Gardner, 2.
O’Connor et al., 2. Furthermore, interventions that reduce drug self- administration in the laboratory often reduce drug intake in substance- abusing individuals (see reviews by Mello and Negus, 1. Haney and Spealman, 2. The Effects of Exercise on Drug Self- Administration: Cocaine, Amphetamine, and Methamphetamine. Using the drug self- administration procedure, experimental parameters can be manipulated to model the different transitional phases of substance use and abuse (e. These models of addictive behavior provide a platform by which researchers can critically evaluate interventions that prevent, reduce, or eliminate problematic forms of drug use during different transitional stages of a substance use disorder. Recent studies report that exercise reduces drug self- administration during several of these stages.